Friday, May 18, 2012


 In-situ conservation of biodiversity


Introduction
In-situ conservation of biodiversity and protected areas
Advantages, risks, and opportunities
Integrated regional development planning and implementation
Conclusion
References

Introduction



The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, brought the topic of biodiversity conservation into the living rooms of the world and helped place this critical issue on the agendas of world leaders. While the ranks of those concerned with biodiversity seem to have diversified and increased, a basic understanding of what it is, what it means to mankind, and how it can be protected is still lacking.
In an effort to solve these problems, the World Conservation Union has attempted to clarify the definition and show the value of "biodiversity." Going beyond "genetic makeup," the IUCN interprets biodiversity to encompass all species of plants, animals, and microorganisms and the ecosystems (including ecosystem processes) to which they belong. Usually considered at three different levels--genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity--it is the complicated mosaic of living organisms that interact with abiotic substances and gradients to sustain life at all hierarchical levels (McNeely, 1990). Furthermore, each of these levels extends enormous, often immeasurable, economic and social benefits to mankind. Although it is recognized that a very high percentage of the total biodiversity exists in a small number of tropical countries, significant diversity also occurs in temperate zones and in aquatic ecosystems as well.
Biodiversity conservation is accomplished in a number of ways. Ex-situ methods focus on species conservation in botanic gardens, zoos, gene banks, and captive breeding programs. In-situ methods use conservation areas as "warehouses" of biological information. Many scientists and conservationists feel that until methods are available to discern easily which of the millions of species and varieties will have economic value, in-situ conservation through the protection of natural areas should be the primary means for the maintenance of these resources. However, a rigid preservation approach is virtually impossible to implement and even less likely to be maintained over time. Considering trends in population growth and the urgency of economic development--especially in the developing countries--a more appropriate response would be to pursue proactive alternatives to high-impact development activities, and to implement carefully formulated strategies for in-situ methods that would include protected areas in the development mix.
Unfortunately, the formulation of that development mix is not easy, because moral, as well as technical and economic, choices are involved. According to Wilson (1984):
To choose what is best for the near future is easy. To choose what is best for the distant future is easy. To choose what is best for both the near and distant futures is a hard task, often internally contradictory, and requiring ethical codes yet to be formulated.
Although integrated regional development planning makes no claim to moral superiority, it does provide a framework for making such very difficult choices. That biodiversity conservation must be a part of development planning efforts is clear.

In-situ conservation of biodiversity and protected areas

Although viable populations of some organisms can be maintained ex-situ either under cultivation or in captivity, these methods are far less effective than in-situ methods, and, generally, they are extremely costly. Likewise, although ex-situ methods are important under a number of conditions, in-situ methods are generally recognized as being more secure and financially efficient. The challenge in using in-situ methods is to expand our vision of protected areas to include multiple use and extractive reserves and to develop new models for conservation including, for example, such innovative proposals as using damaged ecosystems to preserve rare, endangered, and threatened species (Cairns, 1986) and to expand the range of options available for economic development.
As of 1993 nearly 7, 000 parks and protected areas covering in excess of 650 million acres had been established worldwide (WRI, 1992). When combined with smaller areas such as state parks and private reserves, a large portion of the planet's land surface is receiving some degree of protection. All eight Natural Realms and 14 Biomes, as categorized by Udvardy (1975), are represented. Nevertheless, the participants in the IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas and the 1992 Earth Summit concluded that although progress had been made in conserving samples of these biogeographic provinces, coverage was still insufficient. Indeed, there is scientific consensus that the total expanse of protected areas needs to be increased by a factor of three in order to maintain the earth's biotic resources (McNeely et al., 1990). Properly conserving these underrepresented provinces will require the establishment of additional areas that are properly funded and managed to ensure that the broadest possible range of biotic resources are protected and available to support future economic development (UNEP, 1992).

Advantages, risks, and opportunities

In-situ maintenance of biodiversity through the establishment of conservation and multiple-use areas offers distinct advantages over off-site methods in terms of coverage, viability of the resource, and the economic sustainability of the methods:
(1) Coverage. A worldwide system of protected and multiple-use areas would allow a significant number of indigenous species and systems to be protected, thus taking care of the unknowns until such time as methods are found for their investigation and utilization (Burley, 1986).(2) Viability. Natural selection and community evolution continue and new communities, systems, and genetic material are produced (World Conservation Monitoring Center, 1992; Soulé, 1986).
(3) Economic sustainability. A country that maintains specific examples of biodiversity stores up future economic benefits. When the need develops and this diversity is thoroughly examined, commercially valuable genetic and biochemical material may be found (Eisner, 1990, 1992, and Reid, 1993).
It is not sufficient to establish a conservation area and then assume its biodiversity is automatically protected and without risk. Many risks, both natural and man-created, remain. An extreme example was the near-obliteration of the entire remaining habitat of the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus r. rosalia) in 1992 by fire (Castro, 1995). Shaffer (1981) cites four broad categories of natural risk:
(1) Demographic uncertainty resulting from random events in the survival and reproduction of individuals.(2) Environmental uncertainty due to random, or at least unpredictable, changes in weather, food supply, and the populations of competitors, predators, parasites, etc.
(3) Natural catastrophes such as floods, fires, or droughts, which may occur at random intervals.
(4) Genetic uncertainty or random changes in genetic make-up due to genetic drift or inbreeding that alter the survival and reproductive probabilities of individuals.
The greatest uncertainties, however, are often anthropogenic. The elimination of habitat to make way for human settlement and associated development activities is the most important factor contributing to the diminishing mosaic of biodiversity. These uncertainties can only be met with a full array of conservation programs, including those that use ex-situ methods.
Despite the long list of uncertainties and risk, there is hope for progress. In the last decade not only have pressures from the scientific community and the efforts of non-governmental organizations led to stronger language in international agreements, but segments of the development community have accepted the idea that a large degree of compatibility exists between the need to develop and the need to maintain biodiversity. Further acceptance depends, however, on a number of attitudinal adjustments on the part of many who call for in-situ conservation, as well as on a clearer understanding of the rationale behind it by those whose activities conflict with it. The success of conservation also requires a modification of how we cost economic goods and services in the short, medium, and long term (McNeely, 1988).
Globally, the possibilities for undertaking in-situ programs such as national parks, biological reserves, and other conservation areas appear to be somewhat favorable. However, the status of these protected areas is often not healthy and unforeseen problems repeatedly arise. The establishment of the Gurupi Biological Reserve in the eastern Brazilian Amazon, for example, significantly increased the level of threat by causing a rush of illegal extraction of forest resources. This site is probably the most endangered conservation unit in the Amazon basin (Rylands, 1991; Oren, 1988). Worldwide, the list of endangered protected areas is growing in number, and additional human-dominated activities such as water development, mining, road construction and resulting development, livestock grazing, poaching, logging, and other removal of vegetation continue to threaten their integrity (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991).

Integrated regional development planning and implementation

As is the case with all human activities, alleviating threats to conservation areas requires the involvement of those most affected by the various land-use alternatives in the decision-making process. Integrated regional development planning (IRDP) is a response to the need for better integration of the numerous interests holding conflicting views of how the resources of a region are to be used (Saunier, 1983; OAS, 1984). Support from the conservation community has also been noted (Riklefs et al., 1984):
The idea of basing conservation of particular species on the maintenance of the natural diversity of species will become even less tenable as the number of threatened species increases and their refuges disappear. Natural areas will have to be designed in conjunction with the goals of regional development and justified on the basis of ecological processes operating within the entire developed region and not just within natural areas.
Not only does IRDP address the intersections between terrestrial, aquatic, and marine systems, it considers the demands of those who use and who would use these systems. However, instead of confronting environmental complexity by subdividing issues into sectoral components, it divides the region into smaller spatial units and looks at the sectoral interactions in each. Interactions of this kind are often conflictive for two reasons: (a) competition is established for the same goods or services by two or more interest groups; and (b) the mix of available goods and services is changed, and one sector is harmed as a result of the activities of another sector to make use of goods and services selected from the whole. IRDP also analyzes the interactions of the region with neighboring areas. Once the regional and sub-regional systems are defined, connections between neighboring units are better understood (Saunier, 1984).
Whereas sectoral planning (including the planning of resource conservation activities) designs programs and projects to meet the needs of specific target populations, IRDP uses methods of systems analysis and conflict management to attempt an appropriate distribution of the costs and benefits of development activities throughout the affected populations or sectors. Thus, conflict identification and its management are fundamental requirements for a development plan to be "integrated" (Saunier, 1984). Sectoral integration is necessary because individual sectoral activities often hinder the activities of other sectors in their efforts to appropriate goods and services from the same and allied systems (Meganck and Saunier, 1983; OAS, 1987). This can be illustrated by agricultural development that affects water quality, resulting in impacts on the goods and services provided by clean water. The decision as to which activities are the correct ones or how each can be adjusted to reduce conflict can only be made through negotiation by the parties involved and not by one of the individual sectors trying to dictate to others--be that sector forestry, agriculture, livestock production, or biodiversity conservation.
In this context, IRDP has a number of advantages over sectoral planning. Conflicts are always easier to manage and even resolve before time, funds, and political prestige have been invested in a specific project. Participants in the regional planning exercise, though representing individual interests, have a shared commitment to rules and procedures of the process that can be controlled. Under this model, the various parties (sectoral interests) operate with a similar rationale and can be easily encouraged to focus on criteria rather than on positions. Further, each can insist that evaluation criteria be objective. This provides an opportunity to invest in options that offer mutual gain and minimal conflict. The result is a strategy for development that demonstrates concern for both the target and the affected populations of development projects and programs, including those that have a conservation orientation. Where integrated analysis and planning show them to be necessary, projects of biodiversity conservation are in all ways development activities, as defensible as any other (Saunier, 1993).
To be successful, the recommendations, strategies, and policies that come out of the integrated regional planning process must consider the needs of those affected by linkages between development sectors--which are little more than a reflection of the integrated nature of the ecosystems and landscapes where development takes place (OAS, 1978). Economic interactions are an important part of these systems and landscapes. "The more we overlook the linkages, the more we shall find the sectors fail to function efficiently and productively, with all that implies for sustainable development" (Myers, 1993).
The principles of IRDP, if adapted to the problems of in-situ conservation of biodiversity, can provide conservationists with welcome tools. Although much of the effort is based on the agreement of parties, this planning has a scientific foundation, and once it has been clarified and accepted by the planning team, strategic alliances will have been developed for the implementation of the programs. Demonstration projects can then be initiated to help "sell" the strategy or plan. The process then goes forward in a series of iterations of implementation, experimentation, evaluation, and, as needed, modification (Figure 1).
(1) Scientific information. Scientific information helps the credibility of the planning process by providing a sound basis for logical decision-making. In more traditional planning efforts, linkages tend to be ignored because our view of the world is traditionally grounded in splitting it up into manageable units. Although science is often responsible for this fragmentation, we also know from science that everything is related, in some way and to some degree, to everything else. That interrelatedness requires that information be managed in an integrated way if we are to make fact-based decisions. "Specialized knowledge by itself produces nothing. It can become productive only when it is integrated into a task" (Drucker, 1994).
Information from the social as well as the natural sciences can help develop a framework for decision-making only if it is both valid and accessible. The collection, storage, and use of relevant information should be designed to provide data rather than assumptions. Thus, one objective of any regional planning effort is to establish a permanent and dynamic database that looks toward addressing information needs on the physical, biotic, and socioeconomic characteristics of the region.
These collections of information should be linked to a larger system of information management to provide complete transparency for all the collaborators. Likewise, if the principal collaborators on the database can help in its design and modification, they will have a sense of ownership in the outcome. Other considerations for designing an information system include the establishment of goals, the determination of the methods and scales to be used, the resolution of the management structure, and the design of evaluation programs.
Figure 1. Principles of Integrated Regional Development Planning and Implementation
(2) Develop strategic alliances. We are often faced with a broad array of development alternatives the selection and implementation of which require the formation of strategic alliances.
To select the best among a number of development alternatives requires the ability to identify costly and undesirable effects of the possible alternative projects and the opportunity to modify these projects during their design stage. Review and discussion in a variety of forums, including those that are cross-sectoral and those where public participation is encouraged, can greatly strengthen planning because of the alliances that are built up in the process.
By making planning a democratic process through IRDP, people can define their problems and design their own solutions. By the same token, IRDP is strengthened through the formation of networks which make use of a variety of communication techniques to assemble knowledgeable and informed constituencies. Four types of networks are valuable to a communication strategy (Krackhardt, 1993):
a. Advice network. Both planning and implementation require an "advice network" of prominent collaborators on whom others depend (or will depend) to solve problems and provide technical information concerning the strategy, program, or project being developed.b. Trust network. A "trust network" consists of the inner circle of participants who share sensitive political information and back each other in a crisis. These are often the project initiators, who may act as catalysts to help in conflict management or to ensure project implementation through their leadership.
c. Communication network. Participants in the effort should discuss project-related matters regularly. Such a network can be specifically designed to inform politically important individuals on a timely basis, thus ensuring their feedback and support.
d. Constituent network. The need to form an alliance with a number of diverse constituencies often takes the planner into the realm of the unknown. Part of communication is recognizing that we can learn from others. An exchange of ideas is important and at least four approaches can be used to foster this exchange, including information feedback, consultation, joint planning, and delegated authority (Westman, 1985). Information feedback consists of formal and informal one-way presentations, newspaper articles, notices, etc. Consultations are made through such mechanisms as public hearings, ombudspersons, or representatives of the interest groups concerned. Joint planning can take place through the use of advisory committees, structured workshops, etc. And delegated authority is amenable to the use of citizens' review boards and planning commissions.
(3) Design demonstration projects. The value of an interdisciplinary and multifunctional planning team cannot be overstated; alliances forged in the process are indispensable to the success of the decisions that are taken. Innovative demonstration projects must include cross-sectoral representation from the initial stages of their formulation. The design of both the planning process and its products should have clear goals and objectives, review existing legislation and public policy, assess the social and economic conditions of the region, describe important ecosystem structure and function, and analyze direct and indirect threats to both the process and its products (Figure 2).
All of this is more easily done if the region is divided into smaller homogeneous units for analysis and if partnerships are created from the variety of constituencies. A series of strategies, with timetables and benchmarks, should be established with detailed financial goals and budget projections. Visual and graphic tools can be used successfully to communicate the process and products to those who require timely information for decision-making. The successful plan also contains criteria and methods for evaluating progress towards meeting the established goals.
(4) Implement, experiment, evaluate and modify actions. The goal of any planning process is its implementation. Countless development plans that have never been implemented sit on shelves because of problems with funding, politics, myopic vision, or the lack of qualified personnel to take the planning recommendations and make them a reality. In many government settings, the fear of being associated with a project or program that is connected to a current or previous administration can be risky. Developing communication strategies to transfer knowledge to decision-makers can ameliorate this fear.
The implementation of a plan requires that strategies and specific actions be prioritized and that public policy be formulated to do so. Accountability must be maintained, but those who are charged with the implementation of a program must recognize that there are productive failures and that implementation can be modified in positive ways either because of such failures or because of experimentation.

Conclusion

There are no easy solutions to the complex challenges of integrated regional development planning. A process which provides a thoughtful structure for gathering and utilizing scientific information, which involves stakeholders in a genuine analysis of development alternatives, and which establishes clear and measurable objectives can provide for rational development activities, including those for the conservation of biodiversity. Using IRDP as a vehicle to communicate with decision-makers provides a framework for action. Planners often look for what is politically expedient; however, the participation of nongovernmental organizations can play an extremely important role in tempering politically motivated development. This nexus between government and non-governmental organizations is one of the more important areas where "integrated" regional development takes place. Both should represent the interests of both present and future generations.

Thursday, May 17, 2012

saturn

A total of 126 images taken over the course of two hours make up this mosaic picture of Saturn. The Cassini-Huygens spacecraft snapped the photos on October 6, 2004, when it was approximately 3.9 million miles (6.3 million kilometers) from Saturn. Cassini was on a four-year mission to explore the ringed planet.
Two of Saturn's 48 known moons are barely visible in this picture of the ringed planet. Mimas, at the upper right, has an enormous impact crater on one side, and Tethys, at the bottom, has a huge rift zone called Ithaca Chasma that runs nearly three-quarters of the way around the moon.
Lit from below by Saturn's internal thermal glow, clearings in the planet's cloud system appear as white pearls. The regularity of the clearings suggests that they may be a manifestation of a large planetary wave.
Saturn's otherworldly rings encircle the planet and extend out for hundreds of thousands of kilometers. The rings—there are thousands—are made up of billions of ice and rock particles, thought to be pieces of comets, asteroids, or shattered moons
Saturn's rings appear blue in this false-color image taken from Cassini. The planet's northern hemisphere is about twice as bright as its southern hemisphere, because high-level, fine particles are about half as prevalent in the northern hemisphere as in the south. These particles block Saturn's glow more strongly, making it look brighter in the north.

revolution of earth

There are two types of Earth revolution: around its axis and around the Sun. The Earth revolves around the Sun once every 365.242199 mean solar days(that’s why we have leap years). The Earth orbits the Sun at a speed of 108,000 km/h. It revolves(rotates) on its axis once during an approximate 24 hours. The actual day is not exactly 24 hours, but that is the stuff for another article(there will be a link to it at the end of this one).
The Earth is never in the same exact same position from day to day. It moves closer to, and further away from, the Sun. Earth’s perihelion(147,098,074 km) occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (152,097,701 km) . The changing Earth-Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9% in solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion as related to aphelion. The southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, so the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year.
The Earth rotates around its axis by moving to the east. The Earth actually rotates 360.9856° in a mean solar day at a speed of 1,674.4 km/h. Earth’s rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day) is 86,400 mean solar seconds. Earth’s rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day is 86,164.098 903 691 seconds of mean solar time. Earth’s rotation period relative to the moving mean vernal equinox(its sidereal day) is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time, making it slightly longer than the stellar day. Over millions of years, the rotation is significantly slowed by gravitational interactions with the Moon(tidal acceleration/deceleration). Some large scale events, such as the high scoring earthquakes, have caused the rotation to speed up by around 3 microseconds. The speed of the rotation of Earth has had various effects over time, including the Earth’s shape, climate, ocean depth and currents, as well as tectonic forces.

संघीय ढांचे पर आघात

भारत संप्रभु राष्ट्र है, यह अनेक राज्यों के समझौते से मिलकर बना संघ नहीं है। प्रधानमंत्री इस राष्ट्र के महाराज नहीं हैं। राज्य स्वतंत्र देश नहीं हैं। मुख्यमंत्री अपने राज्यों के स्वच्छंद शासक नहीं हैं। संविधान सर्वोपरि सत्ता है। केंद्र और राज्य इसी से शक्ति पाते हैं। राष्ट्रपति, प्रधानमंत्री और मुख्यमंत्री सहित सभी संस्थाएं संविधान से ही अधिकार पाती हैं। संविधान सबको शक्ति देता है, सब पर मर्यादाएं भी अधिरोपित करता है। संविधान ही सर्वोच्च राजधर्म-संहिता है। बावजूद इसके प्रधानमंत्री व तमाम मुख्यमंत्रियों का आचरण सामंत जैसा है। प्रधानमंत्री अपने मंत्रियों के भ्रष्टाचार के भी संरक्षक बन जाते हैं। केंद्र राज्यों के अधिकार पर हमला करने वाले आतंक निरोधी केंद्र जैसे विधेयक लाता है। उत्तर प्रदेश की पूर्व मुख्यमंत्री मायावती ने एक परासंवैधानिक संस्था कैबिनेट सचिव बनाई थी। उनके कार्यकाल में राजकोष से मूर्तियां बनाने सहित एनआरएचएम जैसे हजारों करोड़ के घोटाले हुए। ऐसे आचरण के चलते ही भ्रष्टाचार और कुशासन बढ़ा है, राष्ट्रीयता की भावना भी कमजोर हुई है। राष्ट्रीय अखंडता सर्वोपरि निष्ठा है, लेकिन अधिकांश क्षेत्रीय दल क्षेत्रीयता बढ़ाते हैं और राष्ट्रीयता को कमजोर करते हैं। कांग्रेस राष्ट्रीय दल जैसा आचरण नहीं करती। वह अवसर के मुताबिक क्षेत्रीयता को संरक्षण देती है। शेख अब्दुल्ला ने जम्मू-कश्मीर के लिए अलग निशान, अलग विधान, अलग प्रधान मांगा, कांग्रेस ने दे दिया। लालदेंगा ने राष्ट्रीयता पर हथियारबंद चढ़ाई की, कांग्रेस ने उपकृत किया। तमिल क्षेत्रवाद बढ़ाया था पेरियार ने। उत्तर बनाम दक्षिण का गृहयुद्ध बढ़ाने की कोशिश हुई। केंद्र चुप रहा। आंध्र की एक पार्टी ने स्वयं को तेलगु-देशम बताया। तेलगु देश नहीं भाषा है। तेलगु भाषी भारतीय ही हैं। असम, मणिपुर, नागालैंड सहित समूचे पूर्वोत्तर में क्षेत्रीयता ही राष्ट्रीयता है। मुंबइया राजनीति का क्षेत्रवाद उत्तर भारतीयों पर आक्रामक रहता है। अनेक मुख्यमंत्रीगण क्षेत्रीयता को पोषण देते हैं। वे बहुधा केंद्र पर संघीय ढांचे को तोड़ने का आरोप लगाते हैं, लेकिन संविधान के अनुरूप अपने कर्तव्यों का पालन नहीं करते। संघीय ढांचे का अर्थ मुख्यमंत्रियों की मनमानी नहीं है। इसका सीधा अर्थ है कि केंद्र अपने संवैधानिक दायित्वों का निर्वहन करे और राज्य अपनी जिम्मेदारी निभाए। संविधान का शासन दोनों की जिम्मेदारी है। संप्रग सरकार ने संघीय ढांचे को कमजोर किया है। गैरकांग्रेसी राज्यों की उपेक्षा हुई है। राज्यों के साथ भेदभाव जारी है, लेकिन अनेक मुख्यमंत्रियों ने भी संघीय ढांचे से जुड़े अपने संवैधानिक दायित्वों का निर्वहन नहीं किया। उच्चतम न्यायालय की 9 न्यायमूर्तियों की पीठ ने भी एसआर बोम्मई बनाम भारत संघ मामले में कहा था कि राज्य संघ के संवैधानिक अभिकर्ता के रूप में उसके निर्देशों के अनुसार कार्य नहीं कर रहे हैं। ताजा उदाहरण मायावती का है। वह अपने पूरे कार्यकाल में एक दफा भी किसी केंद्रीय बैठक में नहीं गईं। शिक्षा का अधिकार लागू करने की केंद्रीय अपेक्षा भी कई राज्यों ने नहीं पूरी की। बावजूद इस सबके संविधान के संघीय ढांचे से ही सबको उम्मीद हैं। नए राज्यों की मांगों में राजनीति के साथ संघीय ढांचे के फायदों के आकर्षण हैं। राज्य अनेक शक्तियां मांग रहे हैं। जम्मू-कश्मीर की राजनीति स्वायत्ततावादी है, लेकिन 1983 में तमिलनाडु से उछली अधिक स्वायत्तता की मांग में तमाम गैरकांग्रेसी राज्य भी जुड़ गए थे। सरकारिया आयोग की सिफारिशें (1988) भी संघीय ढांचे के पक्ष में थीं और राज्यों का हित मजबूत करने वाली थीं। लेकिन संघीय ढांचे की मजबूती का सारा दारोमदार प्रधानमंत्री और मुख्यमंत्रियों के कर्तव्य निर्वहन पर ही टिका हुआ है। संविधान में राष्ट्र-राज्य के नीति निर्देशक तत्वों की खूबसूरत सूची (अनुच्देद 36 से 51) है। अनुच्छेद 37 में कहा गया है कि संविधान का यह हिस्सा न्यायालयों द्वारा लागू नहीं किया जा सकता, फिर भी इसके तत्व शासन के मूलाधार हैं। इन्हें कानून बनाने में लागू करना राज्य का कर्तव्य होगा। संविधान निर्माताओं ने हमारे शासकों को तमाम कर्तव्य भी दिए हैं। संविधान के अनुसार सामाजिक, आर्थिक और राजनीतिक न्याय के तत्व सभी संस्थाओं में होने चाहिए। यहां समान नागरिक संहिता भी राज्य का कर्तव्य है। गोवंश संरक्षण और उनका वध रोकना भी नीतिनिर्देशक तत्व हैं। समान नागरिक संहिता पर केंद्र ने अपना फर्ज नहीं निभाया। गुजरात, मध्य प्रदेश, उत्तर प्रदेश आदि के मुख्यमंत्रियों ने गोवंश वध निषेध पर पहल की थी, लेकिन देश के अधिकांश हिस्सों के मुख्यमंत्रियों ने इस निदेशक तत्व की अवहेलना की। राज्य क्षेत्र में भ्रष्टाचार रोकने की जिम्मेदारी मुख्यमंत्रियों की ही है, लेकिन ढेर सारे पूर्व मुख्यमंत्रियों पर भ्रष्टाचार के आरोप हैं। लोक व्यवस्था व पुलिस राज्यों का विषय है। लेकिन पुलिसतंत्र मुख्यमंत्री की पार्टी की निजी पलटन बन जाता है। पीडि़तों को सुरक्षा नहीं मिलती। संविधान ने राज्यों को तमाम अधिकार दिए हैं। मुख्यमंत्री ही राज्य का प्रमुख शासक है। वह सरकार का वास्तविक प्रधान है। लोकव्यवस्था, कृषि, जनस्वास्थ, भूमि और भूमि सुधार, सिंचाई, खनिज विकास, राज्य लोकसेवाएं, भू-राजस्व आदि अनेक विषय राज्य सूची में हैं, लेकिन क्षेत्रीय दल चलाने वाले मुख्यमंत्री राजनीति को सर्वोपरि महत्व देते हैं। तब पार्टी और सरकार एक हो जाते हैं। प्रशासनिक संवेदनशीलता का नामोनिशान नहीं होता। कुछ मुख्यमंत्रियों के अपने प्रिय औद्योगिक घराने और पालतू माफिया होते हैं। भ्रष्टाचार का संस्थागत हो जाना इसी संकीर्ण राजनीति का परिणाम है। वे अपनी क्षेत्रीय ताकत के अनुसार केंद्र को चुनौती देते हैं। केंद्र मोलभाव करता दिखाई पड़ रहा है। वे धमकाते हैं, केंद्र डर जाता है। केंद्र सीबीआइ जांच का डर दिखाता है, वे सौदा कर लेते हैं। भ्रष्टाचार बढ़ रहा है। न्यायालयों के हस्तक्षेप से ही कार्रवाई होती है। तमाम मुख्यमंत्री अपना कर्तव्य नहीं निभाते, केंद्र गठबंधन राजनीति को कोसता है और गठबंधन से ही सत्ता चलाता है। राष्ट्र स्थायी सत्य है और राष्ट्रीयता स्थायी राष्ट्रधर्म। मुख्यमंत्री इसी राष्ट्र की माननीय संवैधानिक संस्था हैं। मुख्यमंत्रियों को राष्ट्रभाव संव‌र्द्धन का काम करना चाहिए। शोषण और भ्रष्टाचार मुक्त शासन उन्हीं की जिम्मेदारी है। उत्तर प्रदेश सहित कई राज्यों में भ्रष्टाचार की बाढ़ है। कानून व्यवस्था की स्थिति खराब है। राजकोष लुट रहा है। वे क्षेत्रीय, जातीय सवाल उठाकर ताकत बढ़ाते हैं। आम आदमी पीडि़त है। आखिरकार विभिन्न राज्यों में बढ़ रहे भ्रष्टाचार का मुख्य दोषी कौन है? लोकसेवाओं में व्याप्त भ्रष्टाचार को दूर करने की जिम्मेदारी है किसकी? मुख्यमंत्री अपनी जिम्मेदारी से बच नहीं सकते।
...............BY Hriday Narayan Dixit..............published in dainik jagran

Wednesday, May 16, 2012



National Water Development Agency

 
 National Water Development Agency (NWDA) was set up in July, 1982 as Autonomous Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860, to carry out the water balance and other studies on a scientific and realistic basis for optimum utilisation of Water Resources of the Peninsular rivers system for preparation of feasibility reports and thus to give concrete shape to Peninsular Rivers Development Component of National Perspective. In 1990, NWDA was also entrusted with the task of Himalayan Rivers Development Component of National Perspectives. Recently, the functions of NWDA have been further modified and the work of preparation of detailed Project Reports (DPR) of various link proposals and Pre-feasibility Reports and feasibility reports of intra-State links as proposed by the States have been included in the functions of NWDA.
FUNCTIONS OF NWDA:
a)   To carry out detailed surveys and investigations of possible reservoir sites and interconnecting links in order to establish feasibility of the proposal of Peninsular Rivers Development and Himalayan Rivers Development components forming part of National Perspective for Water Resources Development prepared by the then Ministry of Irrigation (now Ministry of Water Resources) and Central Water Commission.
b)  To carry out detailed surveys about the quantum of water in various Peninsular River Systems and Himalayan River Systems which can be transferred to other basins/States after meeting the reasonable needs of basin/states in the foreseeable future.
c)   To prepare feasibility report of the various components of the scheme relating to Peninsular Rivers development and Himalayan Rivers development.
d)   To prepare detailed project report of river link proposals under National Perspective Plan for Water Resources Development after concurrence of the concerned States.
e)   To prepare pre-feasibility/feasibility report of the intra-state links as may be proposed by the States.
f)   To do all such other things the Society may consider necessary, incidental, supplementary or conducive to the attainment of above objectives.

world ITFORUM-5


WITFOR - 5
India hosted the World Information Technology Forum (WITFOR) 2012 on April 17 and 18, 2012 in Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi. This was the fifth edition of the event. It was organised by the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP), in partnership with the Department of Electronics & Information Technology (DEITy), Ministry of Communications & Information Technology, Government of India.
Representatives from over 30 countries shared their knowledge, views and best practices in the use of IT for governance and delivery of key public services.
The next event, WITFOR 2013 will be held in Paraguay.
Focus areas of WITFOR - 5
WITFOR – 5 deliberations mainly focused on the use of ICT in agriculture, education, health and e-Governance, within the overall theme of ‘ICT for Sustainable Human Development’.
The Forum also discussed the role of IT interventions in bringing about greater transparency in governance, issues of privacy and security while dealing with public databases, financial inclusion and ways of leveraging wireless technologies.
Background
WITFOR was born out of the need for emerging economies and developed countries to collaborate and harness the potential for digital technologies for sustainable development. Since its inception in 2003, World IT Forums have been held four times–in Vietnam (2009), Ethiopia (2007), Botswana (2005) and Lithuania (2003).
The activities of the Forum are broadly guided by the World Summit on the Information Society’s (WSIS) Plan of Action, in order to help achieve the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Significance of such events for India
As a country with enormous ICT capabilities and equally immense socio-economic development challenges, India attracts significant international attention for its efforts to exploit the developmental potential of ICT. At the same time, Indian policymakers and practitioners can learn from the experiences of other countries. WITFOR 2012 provided a unique opportunity for sharing knowledge on mobilising ICT for development, among a diverse range of professionals engaging in this effort in many countries with a variety of development challenges.
Thus, WITFOR 2012 provided a valuable forum for understanding how the power of ICT can be harnessed for sustainable development. 

comparison between missiles of India,China, and Pakistan


Missile power of China and Pakistan
  • Both China and Pakistan possess formidable nuclear-armed missiles of their own.
  • From bases in Qinghai and Yunnan provinces, these missiles can reach all of India.
  • China is in the process of replacing its liquid-fuelled ballistic missiles with more modern solid propellant ones.
  • Further, in 2004, China launched the first of its second-generation Type 094 Jin-class nuclear-powered submarines that will carry JL-2 solid-propellant ballistic missiles.
  • Pakistan too has a number of long-range missiles in its armoury. An assessment carried out by an Indian strategic studies group found that Pakistan had a credible deterrent structure organised around the solid-propelled Shaheen-1 and -2 missiles

The Agni family of missiles
  • The family of Agni surface-to-surface ballistic missiles forms the mainstay of India's strategic defence capability to meet various threats.
  • All Agni missiles are propelled by solid fuel and can carry nuclear warheads.
  • As these missiles use solid propellants and can therefore be launched at short notice.
  • They are also carried on mobile launchers, making it more difficult for an enemy to locate and destroy them.
  • The first in the series was Agni-II with a range of 2,500 km, followed by Agni-I (700 km), Agni-III (3,000 km), Agni-IV (3,500 km) and Agni-V (5,000 km) now.
  • Agni-I, Agni-II and Agni-III have been inducted into the Army.
  • Agni-I (700 km) is a single-stage missile, which is 15-metre tall and weighs 12 tonnes. It is Pakistan-specific, and was built in a record 18 months after the Kargil conflict.
  • Agni-II with a range of 2,500 km is a two-stage missile, 20-metre-long and weighs 17 tonnes.
  • Agni-III  (3,000 km) is also a two-stage missile, which is 17 metres long and weighs 50 tonnes.
  • The first development trial of Agni-IV, which has a strike range of more than 3,500 km, took place on November 15, 2011. It is not yet inducted into the Army.
Strategic significance
  • With India's policy of no-first-use of nuclear weapons, Agni-V will provide the country with depth in deterrence.
  • Agni-V, with its long range, will bring the whole of China as well as other regions under its strike envelope. Even though India cannot match China in terms of its vast nuclear and missile arsenals, missiles like Agni-V and the 3,500-km Agni-IV, tested in November 2011, will certainly add strength to its credible minimum nuclear deterrence posture.
  • With a canister-launch system to impart higher road mobility, the missile will give the armed forces much greater operational flexibility than the earlier-generation of Agni missiles.
  • The accuracy levels of Agni-V and Agni-IV, with their better guidance and navigation systems, are far higher than Agni-I (700-km), Agni-II (2,000-km) and Agni-III (3,000-km). This feature enables precision strikes with minimal collateral damage.
  • The Agni missiles will get even more effective once MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-Entry Vehicles) payloads for them are developed. An MIRV payload on a missile carries several nuclear warheads, which can be programmed to hit different targets. A flurry of such missiles can hence completely overwhelm BMD (Ballistic Missile Defence) systems.
  • Agni-V can perform different roles, from carrying multiple warheads to providing anti-satellite capability and even launching tiny satellites into orbit. 
  • Agni V, India's most powerful long-range ballistic missile, also established the superb R&D capabilities of the Defence Research & Development Organisation.

Agni-5


On April 19, 2012, India successfully test-fired for the first time its most-ambitious strategic missile - the 5,000-km+ range Agni-V.  This was India’s first ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile). It places India in an exclusive group of countries with ICBMs which includes just US, Russia, China and France.
The launch took place from Wheeler Island off the Odisha coast at 8.07 am on April 19, 2012. The test-fire, which was originally scheduled to be held on April 18, had to be deferred at the last moment for safety reasons due to bad weather marked by rains and heavy lightning.
After its launch, it took 15 minutes to Agni-V to reach its pre-determined target in southern Indian Ocean.
Agni-V has been developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), which took four years to develop the missile. Agni-V project was headed by Dr. Avinash Chander.
Main features
The Agni-V is a solid-fuelled missile. Its main features are as follows.
  • Nuclear-capable: It can carry a nuclear warhead of more than one tonne.
  • Range: 5,000 KM plus
  • The accuracy levels of Agni-V and Agni-IV, with their better guidance and navigation systems, are far higher than earlier Agni missiles
  • Three-stage missile
  • Solid fuelled: Use of solid propellants allows the missile to be launched at short notice.
  • Also carried on mobile launchers, making it more difficult for an enemy to locate and destroy them.
  • About 50-tonne in weight
  • 17.5-metre tall
  • Canister-launch system to impart higher road mobility
  • To be fully operational by 2014-2015 (after four to five repeatable tests and user trials)
A unique feature
The Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) created Agni V by adding a third stage to Agni III. Agni III is a missile with a range of 3,500 km while carrying a 1.5 tonne payload. It was first successfully tested five years ago.
Both Agni III and V have a diameter of two metres, making them capable of carrying several warheads known as Multiple Independently Targeted Re-entry Vehicles (MIRV). An MIRV payload on a missile carries several nuclear warheads, which can be programmed to hit different targets. A flurry of such missiles can hence completely overwhelm BMD (Ballistic Missile Defence) systems.
Agni I and II have a diameter of one metre and the first stage of the Agni IV has a diameter of 1.2 metres.